Varför har företag ägare?
Vi tänker oss fyra konsulter. De är på konsultmarknaden likvärdiga. De har besläktade men inte identiska kompetenser och erfarenheter. Det finns i gruppen ingen ”främste bland likar”, ingen tydlig ledare eller entreprenör. Vi antar att de arbetar på en storstadsmarknad, det implicerar en hög och jämn efterfrågan på konsulttjänster. De känner varandra men har när historien börjar var sitt företag och arbetar ensamma, de är med andra ord soloföretagare.
Vad skulle få fyra fristående konsulter som var och en upplever att det finns en marknad för deras kompetens att ge upp rollen som ensamföretagare för att bli anställda i ett företag, låt vara ett egenägt företag? Ja, det fanns ett antal tunga skäl (läs mera av vilka dessa skäl i Varför bilda företag?) och det ledde fram till ett nytt steg i utvecklingen, ett gemensamt bolag bildades. Och en av de fyra blev efter moget övervägande bolagets chef. Läs mera om hur det gick till i Varför behövs det en chef?
Varför har företag ägare?
Skulle det finnas ekonomiskt rationella skäl för en ägare också i ett partnerföretag, alltså att en av ”de fyra” skulle ha det residuala kontraktet i alla sina tre delar (rätten att bestämma, rätten till avkastningen, rätten att sälja företaget)? Särskilt intressant blir frågan om vi förutsätter att ”de fyra” är överens om hur företaget skall ledas. För det är självklart att var man oense på den punkten, ja då skulle det kunna vara ett rationellt skäl till att en fick ägarmakten och därmed bestämmandemakten. Det är med andra ord inte rätten att leda i det residuala kontraktet som skulle kunna vara svaret på frågan.
Det som då återstår som den egentligen enda tänkbara förklaringen till varför det skulle vara ekonomiskt klokt att en av ”de fyra” ensam blev ägare, måste ha något att göra med rätten till residualen, rätten till inkomsten av verksamheten. Om vi antar att man är överens om att fördelningen av överskottet sker efter en ”lika-till-alla”-princip behöver ingen bekymra sig om residualen, den finns inte. Det behövs ingen ägare. Det gäller också om ”de fyra” har arbetat fram en modell för hur respektive delägares produktivitetsbidrag skall mätas och hur fördelningen av överskottet skall gå till. Det är när man inte är överens om en fördelningsordning som bekymmer uppstår och frågan om en ägare blir aktuell. Inkomstfördelningen mellan aktörerna kan helt enkelt inte lösas utan att det finns en ägare.
Låt oss granska den hypotesen som förklaring till varför ägare finns. Man kan tänka sig åtminstone två orsaker till varför ”de fyra” inte kommer överens om inkomstfördelningen.
1. Det är problem att beräkna vad var och en bidrar med, marginalproduktiviteten, på ett sådant sätt att alla tycker att det blir rättvist, alternativt
2. Personerna – ”de fyra” – har olika risksyn.
Det senare betyder att även om det skulle vara möjligt att finna en mätmetod som alla fyra kan säga ja till så är det inte självklart att man godtar modellen för hur inkomsterna skall fördelas eftersom vi nu förutsätter att delägarna skiljer sig åt i sin syn på risk. En eller flera av delägarna är, kort sagt, känsliga på inkomstvariationer.
Båda dessa situationer leder till att en effektiv organisationsmodell vore att en i gruppen blir ägare i meningen att denne får det residuala kontraktet. Med andra ord säger den presumtive ägaren något i stil med följande: ”OK, jag tecknar ett avtal med var och en av er om en garanterad lägsta inkomst. Villkoret är att jag får det som blir över – och jag måste få chefsansvaret.” Det senare ledet är väsentligt. Den som på detta sätt ställer ut inkomstgarantier måste också ha ett kontroll- och ledningsansvar. Anledningen till att det är ett naturligt krav formulerade Frank Knight redan i början av 1920-talet. Han menade att om inte den som är ”försäkringsgivare” i denna mening har kontroll över hur produktionen skall organiseras finns en risk för opportunistiskt beteende från de anställda. Knight använde inte ordet moral hazard, han talade i stället om nödvändigheten av ”unity of interest”, men innebörden är densamma.
Ett led för att denna process skall vara avslutad kvarstår. Skall en av ”de fyra” bli ensam ägare i formell mening då måste han vara ägare till samtliga aktier (vi förutsätter att verksamheten bedrivs i ett aktiebolag). Avtalet måste alltså också innefatta villkoren för en överlåtelse av aktierna.
Låt oss anta att det finns fyra lika stora aktieinnehav på 100 000 kronor. Det är det riskkapital som var och en satte in i företaget vid starten. Checkräkningskrediten är, antar vi, outnyttjad och några andra skulder finns inte. Tillgångarna är, förutom likvida medel, kundfordringar. Det bokförda värdet är således 400 000 kronor plus värdet av kundfordringarna. Vi bortser för enkelhetens skull från alla skattekonsekvenser.
Det är den formella sidan av balansräkningen. Det finns också en informell sida. Vi antar att det med tiden byggts upp immateriella värden som inte syns i balansräkningen. Det skulle i det här fallet kunna vara företagets goda namn och rykte och kundbasen. Vi kan, fullt realistiskt, tänka oss att köparen måste betala mera för företaget än vad som motsvarar det bokförda värdet. Säljarna skulle med andra ord sätta ett pris på företagets immateriella tillgångar.
Man kan föreställa sig på vilka villkor köparen skulle göra en sådan affär. Han skulle kontraktsmässigt försöka binda säljarna, alltså de tre kompanjonerna, till den fortsatta verksamheten. Det gäller i synnerhet nyckelpersonen bland de fyra (om denne inte är köparen). Det är ganska säkert att denne, förmodligen alla tre, i ett avtal måste lova att arbeta vidare i företaget under ett antal år. Och de måste lova att när de en gång slutar får de inte själva eller som anställda ta upp en konkurrerande verksamhet. Båda dessa punkter – inklusive tydliga sanktioner vid kontraktsbrott – är förmodligen oeftergivliga villkor. Utan ett sådant avtal skulle en affär där köparen betalar väsentligt mer än det bokförda värdet inte bli av.
Därutöver skulle ett avtal givetvis innehålla ett antal andra punkter om lönevillkor och annat. Det är troligt att man också skulle finna skrivningar som syftar till att eliminera risken för ”hold up” och för att de tre säljarna på annat sätt skulle bete sig opportunistiskt.
Däremot behöver inte något skrivas om den nye ägarens primus-inter-pares-roll, det vill säga om ägarens rätt till den residuala kontraktet. Det är lagfäst i aktiebolagslagen och det är bestämt genom praxis. Det gäller bl a rätten för ägarna att på bolagsstämma utse styrelsen för företaget och därmed indirekt företagsledningen.
För att sammanfatta. Om vi förutsätter att det finns produktivitetsvinster att göra genom att flera personer samverkar i det vi kallar ett företag (om jämförelsen är att samma produktion görs via samverkan på marknaden, i det här fallet av ett antal soloföretagare) då kan vi konstatera två saker. Dels att det krävs en ledning för företaget, alltså att en part har rätten att fördela och organisera arbetet. Det gäller oberoende av om vi antar att aktörerna är likvärdiga eller inte. Dels att det sannolikt i praktiken blir nödvändigt med en ägare i meningen att en part har rätten till det residuala kontraktet i alla dess delar. Det hänger väsentligen samman med att fördelningen av inkomsten annars riskerar att bli en prövosten därför att det antingen uppstår mätproblem (”vem har bidragit mest”) eller finns olika syn på risk hos aktörerna.
Ett mera utvecklat resonemang, inklusive referenser, finns i essän Varför finns företag? Eller läs bara det sammanhållna avsnittet om “de fyra konsulterna” i De fyra eller Det embryonala företageta>
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Particular statements in this press release which include, but
not limited to, statements regarding: the advantages, impact, performance, and availability of our products and
solutions, technologies, and services, such as
NVIDIA ACE for Video games, NVIDIA Omniverse, NVIDIA NeMo, NVIDIA Riva, and NVIDIA Omniverse Audio2Face;
the possible of generative AI to revolutionize the interactivity players can have with game people and dramatically increase immersion in game
titles; NVIDIA spearheading the usage of generative AI in online games; developers being in the position to use NVIDIA ACE for Game titles to build NPCs;
and activity developers and startups using NVIDIA generative AI technologies for their workflows are forward-looking
statements that are topic to threats and uncertainties that could result in success for being materially different than expectations.
Vital factors that could lead to real final results to differ materially involve: global economic disorders; our reliance on third get-togethers to manufacture,
assemble, package and test our goods; the impact of technological development and Levels of competition; development of new goods and technologies or enhancements to
our current item and technologies; market acceptance of our solutions or our
partners’ products; design, manufacturing or software defects; changes in purchaser preferences or needs;
changes in industry standards and interfaces; surprising loss of performance of our merchandise or technologies when integrated into systems; and other factors thorough from time
to time while in the most new reports NVIDIA information with the Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC,
which include, although not limited to, its annual report on Form ten-K and
quarterly reports on Form ten-Q.
Interstellar journey is exceedingly tricky, but we have a chance to likely create alien intelligences digitally.”
Copies of reports filed with the SEC are posted around the
company’s website and can be found from NVIDIA without cost.
These ahead-looking statements are not guarantees of
future performance and speak only as from the day hereof, and, other
than as required by regulation, NVIDIA disclaims any obligation to update these ahead-looking statements to replicate future events or
situations.
The second approach will come from Chelsea Finn on the University of California, Berkeley,
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Selected statements in this press release together with,
although not limited to, statements as to: the advantages, impact, performance,
and availability of our items, technologies, and services, including NVIDIA ACE for
Online games, NVIDIA Omniverse, NVIDIA NeMo, NVIDIA
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reliance on 3rd events to manufacture, assemble, package and check our goods; the influence of technological development
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technologies when integrated into systems; in addition to other factors specific
from time to time from the most new reports NVIDIA files with the Securities and Exchange
Commission, or SEC, including, although not limited to, its
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Clune hopes these questions will be requested and answered as more people realize the prospective of self-producing AIs.
“Most people from the machine-learning Group don’t at any time really
talk about our overall path to particularly powerful AI,” he states—as
an alternative, they tend to focus on small, incremental improvements.
Clune desires to start a conversation about the
field’s biggest ambitions again.
Typically, a single demands a objective satisfaction value that
reaches a hundred% to accomplish productive control from the brain for all scenarios it’s
got practiced on.
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While hype and nightmare scenarios may dominate news headlines, if you talk
about AI it’s vital to think about the part of power, suggests
Khari Johnson, a senior staff writer at
Wired.
A little stick figure with a wedge-shaped head shuffles throughout
the screen. It moves within a half crouch, dragging
a single knee along the ground.
The hosting market has grown to enormous proportions over the course
of the final twenty five years considering that we first experienced a need for hosting.
It’s an industry that didn’t even exist ahead of the invention on the Internet.
DeepMind and OpenAI took benefit of this to educate a recurrent neural network to deliver reinforcement-learning algorithms, which tell an AI the best way to behave to realize given plans.
It’s this open-endedness, glimpsed while in the evidently aimless sequence of challenges
generated by POET, that Clune and others imagine could
lead to new styles of AI. For decades AI researchers have made an effort to build algorithms to mimic
human intelligence, although the real breakthrough may occur from building algorithms that seek to mimic
the open-ended challenge-solving of evolution—and sitting down back again to watch what emerges.